Film Review: Not One Less, directed by Zhang Yimou

By chensiyuan (chensiyuan) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) via Wikimedia Commons

Not One Less. Directed by Zhang Yimou, Columbia Tristar, 1999.

Zhang Yimou creates a film showcasing the society Communist China  developed during its career in power. In Not One Less, we are introduced to 13-year-old Wei Minzhi, who must substitute teach in a poor village when Teacher Gao is called to care for his mother. What follows is the challenges she faces, both in teaching students not much younger than her, and the journey she must make to find a student who has gone to the city in search of work.

Many commentaries are critical of its position in Chinese film, claiming it was made as a propaganda piece for the Communist government. What seems to be amiss here is the evidence against such claims, namely Zhang Yimou's many other films. Many, including To Live, contain many symbolic criticisms aimed at the Communist government, either during the Maoist Period or the Reform Period. Furthermore, a number of interviews with Zhang make several of his opinions of government policy known to the reader. It seems a mistake to think a film's meaning can be discerned from a superficial viewing.

Education plays an important role in the film, emphasizing the plight of the countryside's children, as well as acting as a criticism of the PRC's handling of rural reform. The film's focus on chalk shortages (representative of the wider lack of educational resources) as well as the fact that Teacher Gao has not been paid a salary for six months of working reflect the shortcomings of the government's reform plans. The cause of this, Xaoling's article claims, is the government policy where individual villages are responsible for funding the nine years of compulsory education for the area's children. In areas where money is already very scarce, there is little which can be done to raise funding for the schools. Symbols of this failed reform include the sign stating “Education is the Foundation for the Country's Prosperity,” which is plastered on a broken down wall, as well as the nature of the schoolhouse, which has no clock, and must rely on limited resources to survive.

Zhang represents the plight of the children by explaining the song Wei sings to Teacher Gao, then to her students. Though she forgets the official lyrics, her substituted lyrics hold important commentaries on the nature of the State's relationship to its children. Xiaoling comments that the official lyrics represent the State as the sunshine to the nation's “flowers”, or children. Wei Minzhi can never remember the correct words, which Xiaoling believes to represent Zhang's belief that the children would not see themselves as being cultivated by the State when it seems to have abandoned them to their fate.

The “happy ending” of the film shows the TV crew and cargo trucks driving out to the village, carrying loads of donations made by the city dwellers. As Xiaoling says, many viewers may say it's too Hollywood to be taken seriously. On the contrary, this reading doesn't reflect the true ramifications of such donations. What do the students do after the funding and donations run out? Will the city people still remember them, or will they believe they've done their good deed for the year? Upon closer inspection, the film actually is giving a critical commentary on the government, as well as the prosperous people's lack of awareness of the countryside conditions. In some ways it's like applying a bandage to a shotgun wound, treating the symptoms without addressing the main cause. We are left with a few statistics, claiming the reforms and charity have allowed 15% of students to return to school in the countryside. Xiaoling reflects on this, wondering what will happen to the other 85% of the students who won't return. Zhang wants the people to know that there is still much work to be done, most importantly in the way government reforms are carried out in the villages and the countryside.

National responses to the film are surprisingly mixed. What is most troubling is the rather superficial review given by a representative of Beijing Normal University, who claims the film “lacks a strong plot” and laments at how the ending's “happy laughter conceals harsh reality.” These comments reflect the divide between urban dwellers and the plight of the countryside. Furthermore, it represents the lack of understanding, in that the reader claims the superficiality of the ending, which seems to be Zhang's exact point. Other comments, however, reflect the awareness of the situation in the countryside, as represented in Zhang's film, however it also shows the lack of action of the readers. Thought many make the effort to write commentaries on the film, one reviewer tells how they should have written a report after seeing the poverty in the village. The instances of “should have” or “will next time” likely expands beyond one commentator's words. It is the hope that this film will open the audiences eyes to not only the plight of the poor, but also the need for critical government review.

Works cited: 

Xiaoling Zhang, “A Film Director's Criticism of Reform China: A Close Reading of Zhang Yimou's 'Not One Less',” China Information XV.2 (2001):

Film Review: "House of Saddam," directed by Alex Holmes and Jim O'Hanlon, 2014.

House of Saddam. Directed by Alex Holmes and Jim O'Hanlon, writer, Stephen Butchard, featuring Igal Naor, Shohreh Aghdashloo, Amr Waked (HBO Films in association with BBC, HBO, 2008), Streaming (Amazon Prime Streaming, 2014).


House of Saddam provides the viewer a docudrama with a healthy mix of suspense, action, and emotional turmoil that surrounds the near 25 year regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq. The total series is split into four parts, each focusing on a specific year in his life.

Part One: 1979 showcases his coup over then Iraqi President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and his rise to president.

Part Two: 1988-1991 reveals a few of the origins of Iraq's war with Iran, as well as Saddam's eldest son Uday's increasingly erratic behavior as the son of a dictator. We also see Saddam meet personally with US ambassador April Glaspie, whose carefully diplomatic statement of "no opinion" on the regional conflicts between Kuwait and Iraq provides Saddam with an opening to initiate hot war for economic disagreements.

Part Three: 1995 sees Iraq's economy in disarray, between the disastrous Gulf War and UN sanctions, as Saddam's attention focuses on establishing a familial tie to the Prophet Muhammad. Even as his eldest son's behavior becomes increasingly troubled and UN Inspector Rolf Ekeus takes a hardline approach to his work, Saddam's own inner circle of trusted advisors begin questioning his ability to lead.

Part Four: 2003 Charts the US-led invasion of Iraq under President George W. Bush. Saddam's hold on power continues to decline as the economy and military abilities of Iraq cripple under the superior resources of the coalition forces. Saddam is forced to go into hiding as his sons face an American siege. The film ends with Saddam's 2006 trial for crimes against humanity.

Overall, this series of films provides a satisfying look into the Machiavellian ideology Saddam Hussein brings with him as he gains and holds power in Iraq. Any film with a controversial figure as its subject demands a team that carefully balances the political with the economic and the human. These films do not adequately showcase the political interplay between the international community and Saddam's Iraq, particularly the various cooperative agreements between the West and Iraq when it suited the former. The human aspects of the regime are displayed well, however it might have strengthened the film to explore what little is known of Saddam's upbringing.

Saddam's adherence to gaining and maintaining power through intimidation and fear shows what happens under such regimes. The sheer ignorance of what his people experienced under his control, either through blindness or a lack of care, is displayed alongside his other brutal ways of maintaining power. This film is a testiment to the lead actor Yigal Naor's abilities, as he captures the dictator's mannerisms and emotional displays well. The supporting cast also provide a strong accompaniment to bringing this interesting story to life.

Historians will cringe at the lack of depth, but viewers would be well suited to see this series as a new glimpse into the lives of a thoroughly propagandized figure. The team focused on research and accuracy to the best degree they could. Alex Holmes states:

"We set out to talk to as many people as we could who had known Saddam first-hand in order to piece together a picture of what life was like inside Saddam's ever-shrinking inner circle. We spoke to his allies and to his adversaries; to politicians, exiles, palace insiders, his cooks, his menservants, friends of the Hussein family and government ministers. We interviewed people inside and outside Iraq.

"We cross-referenced these interviews with pictures and home movies left behind by the Hussein family, some produced for propaganda purposes, but others more candid, salvaged from the regime's destroyed palaces. And we accessed the partial trail of documents that emerged following the fall of the secretive and obsessively bureaucratic regime. The process took three years and involved a team of three researchers, all Arabic speakers. What emerges is a distinct and independent portrait of a dictator and his center of power."

The paper trail is impressive, and provides strong support for what is displayed. It is a welcome addition to the variety of films seeking insight into shadowy, controversial figures that impacted nations.

Recommended Films: W.; The Hurricane, Man on the Moon; Ray; Ali

Hungry History: Filipino Arroz Caldo!! (Lugaw)

By Robert Colinares (www.filipino-food-lovers.com) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Filipino chicken and rice stew! Sort of...


Arroz Caldo is a Spanish-influenced rice soup of Chinese inspiration, consumed by Spanish colonials who settled in the Philippines. An easy to digest food, it is often given the people who are sick or the elderly, as well as those in cold climates, due to being warm and flavorful.

Varieties of scrumptious ingredients depend on the specific region and individual preference of the preparer. Fried garlic and scallions are traditional ingredients in lugaw, the Tagalog term for this dish. Ginger, a favored ingredient in another Filipino favorite, adobo, is also sliced and boiled in the chicken or fish broth. Diced tofu, pork, beef cuts, soy sauce, calamansi, and black pepper are also flavorful ingredients in some variations. Try a taste of Cebu by adding Chinese sausage, bay prawns, bay leaf or olive oil, according to your specific recipe.

By Ramon FVelasquez (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Northern provinces in the Philippines, particularly Ilocanos, tend to prefer the Spanish-inspired arroz caldo to lugaw, though it seems to mainly be a difference of ingredients. If you want to switch up your chicken soup when you're feeling cold or otherwise hungry, next time try this recipe for arroz caldo and have a taste of the Philippines in no time!

Book Review: Suits Me: The Double Life of Billy Tipton, Diane Middlebrook.

By User:Villanueva at hu.wikipedia [Public domain], from Wikimedia Commons

In Suits Me: The Double Life of Billy Tipton, Ms. Middlebrook chronicles the life and career of jazz musician Billy Tipton, who began life as Dorothy Tipton. She addresses the challenges of gender identity, but also explores individual 1930s social responses to gender, and whether or not such identities were truly significant. She further investigates how gender identity significantly helped and hindered women’s access to careers during the 1930s, when women were still limited when men enjoyed nearly full access to a profession of their choice.

Ms. Middlebrook utilizes primary sources like audio tapes and photographs to piece together Tipton’s life. Her reliance on personal accounts of those who knew Billy Tipton strengthens many aspects of her argument. Such intimate details and discussions between spouses and colleagues lends itself to increased insight, particularly on the topic of sex. Some limitations include potential misrepresentation or questionable memories on the interactions, due to age or misunderstanding or personal reasons. This doesn’t belittle the value of first-person accounts, nor the strength of relying on such accounts to provide important insights. What is significant is these sources show how Tipton’s “wives” (for there was never a legal recognition of a marriage) and colleagues often didn’t know, or were largely unphased, by the birth sex of Billy Tipton, and recognized him as a loving father, partner, and musician, though very private and sometimes withdrawn.

Ms. Middlebrook chooses a chronological narrative, which works well to develop both Tipton’s transformation from Dorothy to Billy, but builds a solid foundation for understanding the circumstances surrounding his shift from Dorothy Tipton, an out of work musician, to Billy Tipton, a moderately successful jazz musician in the 1930s.

Ms. Middlebrook contributes successfully to a wealth of biographical narratives covering significant figures during the 1930s. A few contrasts to the Amelia Earhart book Still Missing seems appropriate, in light of the liberal feminist ideologies of the 1920s-1930s. Whereas Susan Ware’s book showcases prominent, talented females like Earhart and Hepburn proving sex to be no limitation to excellence, Ms. Middlebrook’s title character alters his persona to fulfill a role largely excluding women. This desire to fulfill a part Tipton felt born to perform meant securing access to the role by any means necessary. Counter to the figures of Still Missing, however, one would wonder whether Tipton’s life reflects a woman gaining access to greater independence through adopting the masculine persona, or whether Tipton’s goal was more individualistic, in that it served the purpose solely of allowing him to play jazz music. Nevertheless, what binds these two narratives together is an understanding that both Amelia Earhart and Billy Tipton built independent lives in their own way, when it was largely novel or scandalous to do so as women.

This book offers the reader insight into a little known persona, though now without one or two minor weaknesses. The action of cross-dressing and living as a person of the opposite gender seems almost benign for many socially-liberal individuals today. What seems fantastic is how Tipton managed to maintain the ruse for such a long time, especially during intimate moments with partners. Limited expansion over the motivations or reasons for Tipton transforming his identity, beyond desire to play and monetary demands from his family, seems a point of contention with this book. Though the author gives many options, it eventually falls to the reader to decide which is most plausible. Further, just how he did it, though perhaps intentionally left out due to lack of primary resources and being counter to the focus of the book. The interesting childhood, where mixed signals represented by Tipton’s father teaching her masculine activities as her mother desired a feminine daughter, meant Tipton may have been little constrained by traditional gender roles. Whether such actions make a statement about feminism in the 1930s, or mainly showcase the individual’s decision to access a profession through innovative means, perhaps becomes the book’s greater strength, to leave the reader pondering the ramifications of gender and social access to different professions.

The fact that success eluded Tipton, by his own actions, is understandable considering the chance someone would find out the truth under such media scrutiny, it almost seemed like “the game” and “the role” were more significant to Tipton than the success. Fulfilling the role of “father” and “jazz musician” became the key. The narrative is a rather quick read, also offering an easy style. A reader is left to wonder whether or not Tipton’s actions would be considered moral, given that many of the individuals present in Tipton’s life knew nothing of his true birth sex. Though such an accusation is countered by the fact that many who knew, including many individuals who played music with Tipton, show that as long as one could play, it mattered little what gender they identified with (though women were still largely prejudiced against). One almost questions whether Tipton performed a Catch Me If You Can-esque masquerade through gender deception, or if the draw to play music and live life as he saw fit was the primary, driving goal.

Recommended films: Some Like it Hot (1959), Billy Wilder; Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975), Jim Sharman; Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), Chris Columbus; To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar (1995), Beeban Kidron

US Cold War Containment Policy

By Catechetical Guild (Catechetical Guild) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

After the conclusion of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two “superpowers” whose economic, social, and cultural influence would long influence what historians later refer to as the Cold War period, roughly from 1945 until the 1990's. Alongside the rising international power of these two nations, each took on official policies to try and influence proxy states to adopt their own domestic governments allied with the two economic regimes, either Democracy or Communism.

Two regions, East Asia and Europe, were greatly influential in the United States' Cold War policy of containment, and felt the consequences of the worldwide contests between Soviet and US-backed governments.

After the war, Japan was essentially a nation rebuilding itself from square one. Much of the country had been destroyed by the Allies and many people were without basic fundamental services peacetime, first-world citizens take as given. The occupation by the United States also ushered in a period of demilitarization, and the reestablishment of fundamental government structures. Given this circumstance, the United States could, in essence, build a democratic nation, providing significant military and economic backing, and ensure that Japan could be relied upon as a “buffer” against the spreading of Communism from Soviet and, later, Chinese influence. US Cold War policy demanded a protected Japan.

In Korea, with the solidification of Chinese Communism to its West, and the influence of the Soviet north, a movement towards a Communist Korea swept through and built up a power base in the North of the peninsula under Kim Il Sung. Sung wanted the official military backing of China and Soviet Russia in order to take the South and make Korea a Communist nation, but was largely left wanting. Syngman Rhee, a national conservative politician of the south, kept the US interested and worked to encourage a US Cold War policy that ensured Korea would not fall to the Communists. The Korean Conflict was largely an expression of Cold War policy by the two dominant powers to create a sphere of influence in East Asia, with the US seeking to continue its Cold War policy of containment. Though some efforts were made to take the entire peninsula for the South, the US ultimately failed and the modern de facto borders of North and South Korea were established along the 38th parallel line. Partial Cold War containment, however, was a success in Korea.

In Vietnam, the Communists began efforts to unify the country along Communist lines under Ho Chi Minh, while the Southern Vietnamese government of Ngo Dinh Diem was supported as a nominally democratic government, although displayed dictatorial tendencies. In some parallels to Korea, Vietnam became a proxy war that escalated to a direct conflict for the United States. 1968’s escalation under Lyndon Johnson resulted in over 500,000 US troops committed to South Vietnam. Efforts at US Cold War containment were in full swing in Southeast Asia,

Post War, Germany was a country divided, both ideologically and literally. Eastern Germany was established as a Communist satellite state, and West Germany a democratically aligned state. Indeed, Berlin itself was divided along Democratic-Communist divisions, and later a wall. The US Cold War policy committed to the protection of Berlin and Germany specifically because of the limited successes in the Korean Conflict, which spiraled out of control. Berlin and Germany were influential in the developments of the Cuban Missile Crisis, as one of the key considerations for Soviet Russia was the inability of the US to simultaneously defend West Germany and Cuba with their military. The presence of missiles so close to the US mainland negated any advantages the US held by stationing military forces in, and thus militarily advantageous, Europe. This was the closest the world came to a third World War, and total nuclear conflict. Fidel Castro was committed to the Communist cause, and when Khrushchev decided to back down in the face of a US blockade and ultimatum, Castro felt betrayed. Thankfully, however, it avoided a nuclear war between the periods’ two superpowers.

Recommended Films: Dr. Strangelove and Full Metal Jacket, Stanley Kubrick; The Manchurian Candidate, John Frankenheimer; The Bedford Incident, James B. Harris

Hungry History: Spam Musubi!!

Hawaii-Asian-American food at its finest!

Combining some of the best aspects of American modern food miracles and Japanese sushi rice recipes, Spam Musubi merges the umami of rice vinegar infused short-grain rice and nori (dried seaweed) with the sodium-rich protein goodness of Spam into a snack worthy of any lunch-box.

Spam's history dates to the World War II military bases in Hawaii, where soldiers' main protein rations consisted of canisters of Spam. Due to the prevalence of this canned wonder, Hawaiians began incorporating Spam into island recipes. The Japanese communities in Hawaii can be credited with fashioning Spam musubi, inspired by Japanese omusubi with more traditional Japanese ingredients.

Variations exist that incorporate such ingredients, including Japanese furikake (dried ingredients for mixing into rice) like egg, salmon, sesame seeds, and flavored nori. Additional ingredients for musubi include Japanese chicken katsu (fried cutlet) and hot dogs.

Depending on the individual variation desired, chefs may opt for Hormel's slightly healthier variations of Spam, including their 25% less sodium variation, turkey variation, or "lite" variation, used in the recipe prepared above.

The Spam of choice is marinated in a soy-based sauce, sometimes flavored with sugar or vinegar, then grilled or baked until slightly dry (I used 350-degree oven for ten minutes). Cooked rice is mixed with rice wine vinegar and layered on dried nori to desired thickness. Sliced Spam is then layered on rice with a desired sauce, including but not limited to Hawaiian or Japanese style katsu sauce, Japanese mayonnaise, or soy sauce.

These snacks can be wrapped in plastic wrap then stored, as Spam Musubi can be enjoyed hot or cold.

This recipe from Allrecipes should get you started, but the beauty is making it your own with your own flavors. Don't be afraid to experiment!

World War II, Anti-Communism, Women's Liberation Movement

By CIA [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Two prominent circumstances greatly affect the politics of America during the latter half of the 20th Century. Taken together, it can be argued that US Cold War policy, Anti-Communist sentiments in the West, and the movement for women’s liberation resurrecting during World War II had direct influences over modern world circumstances as divergent as modern feminist movements, the presence of the Chinese Communist Party, and the Japanese State as a victim of nuclear weapons.

First we look at the Anti-Communist sentiments arising during the Second World War. Towards the end of the war, the United States and the Soviet Union were both working on, or completing work on, the development of the first nuclear weaponry. The United States, in part as a demonstration of international military might aimed at the Soviet Union, used the nuclear weapons “Fat Man” and “Little Boy” on the two cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima in 1945.

Scholars still debate the military, political, and social implications of the decision to use the bombs, from the argument that they saved both Japanese and Allied lives by avoiding a direct land invasion, while others claim the war would have ended naturally as dissidents within the Japanese leadership were already wavering on the war effort.

In hindsight, however, it is clear that the decision to use the bombs was, in part, influenced by the perception that there would be a continued conflict, whether cold or hot, between the two political systems of Democracy and Communism.

Second, we can also look at the diplomatic efforts of George Marshall to develop a unified government in China after World War II, and avoid a civil war between the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai Shek and the Communist leadership of Mao Zedong. When this mission ultimately failure, and civil war occurred when neither side willingly negotiated a suitable agreement, American politics trended towards a US Cold War policy of containment via international cooperation with Western Europe and East Asian allies. While the United States desired a more Nationalist China, they were aware of the Kuomintang’s shortcomings, and held no negotiating power over the Communists. Additionally, with the US Cold War policy of containment came the rise of the National Security State and Total Mobilization, where drills like “Duck and Cover” were commonly practiced by students and office workers. The development of the National Security State after WWII gave rise to many modern Federal departments we take for granted, namely the Department of Defense, the National Security Agency, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Central Intelligence Agency.

The rise and fall of the Cold War, and Anti-Communist movements spearheaded by the United States, greatly affected the modern makeup of the US Federal Government, the Chinese Communist government, and the status of Japan as a victim of nuclear weapons.

A second movement which greatly affected the politics of America was the continuation of the women's’ liberation movement, with beginnings largely in the 19th century, and arising as a sort of second wave in the 1970s, which still continues today.

During the War, with men being drafted into battle in Western Europe and the Pacific theaters, manufacture of military goods, consumer goods (what little didn’t go to the miltary), and work within factories fell to the large female population left. This gave rise of women as workers, personified in the ideal “Rosie the Riveter” image. The employment women gained during the war largely dissipated after the end of conflict, with returning veterans replacing the working women, and the manufacture of munitions and war-time production greatly reduced. Alongside this small taste of economic ability gained during the war, societal norms had to reconcile the tyranny of Nazism, it’s holistic influence among the population and their lives, and address domestic relations between and among the powers and the women and the segregated ethnic groups kept under their heel. The seeds of change were there, but would largely remain on the back burner until the 1960's and 70's, when the Civil Rights Movement, coupled with the counter-culture movement and a shedding of the 1950s norms of the nuclear family gave rise to a stronger motion for equality.

The circumstances of women as economically independent, or at least less dependent upon a man for sustenance during WW II, and the movement towards equality among the various ethnic groups AND gender groups during the 1960s and 1970s, still have repercussions today, where salary gaps are generally narrowing and sports develop leagues to accommodate women and men. The changing politics, commanding equality of ethnicity and gender in the workplace, can trace their development to the circumstances of women’s liberation.

Anti-Communist movements and the women’s liberation movement greatly affected the shaping of modern American politics in the 20th century. As the United States looks out towards the world, and the conflicts brewing in the Middle East, it will be interesting to see how the American movement towards liberation of gender will affect the development of politics in that region of the world.

Recommended Films: Grave of the Fireflies (UR), Isao Takahata; Breakfast at Tiffany's (NR), Blake Edwards; Barbarella, Roger Vadim (PG)

Hungry History: Sandwiches!!

Honey Whole Wheat Toast with Butter, Sun-dried tomatoes w/ olive oil, pepper jack cheese, salami, sliced turkey breast with balsamic-vinegar tomatoes and spinach

From peanut butter and jelly to turkey-avocado, Reuben sandwiches, and Philly cheese steak, we've all had one or two sandwiches we love. Today we're going to explore a little of the history behind the development of the sandwich.

The namesake is thought to come from John Montagu, the 4th Earl of Sandwich, because of his credited creation of this highly portable food. One story states that the Earl was in a terrible hurry and, as was common at the time, instead of eating the entire meal on a "trencher" or stale piece of bread, the Earl "wrapped" the meat and vegetables in the folded stale bread and ate on the run. Another states that he wished his valets to serve his food in such a manner because he wanted to continue playing cards and other hobbies without greasing his fingers or the playing cards.

Sandwich-type meals have been around for many generations, and are widely consumed in as diverse parts of the world as the Middle East, where Jewish individuals use unleavened bread with meat and various vegetables, to the common use of Naan-style bread in India, eaten most often with curries and other dishes. Also falling under the definition of sandwich are the various sweet versions like chocolate-cream sandwiches and ice cream sandwiches.

The Wall Street journal, going along with the Earl's claim, states that the sandwich was Britain's "biggest contribution to gastronomy."

Though the concept of the sandwich is rather easily understood among most globalized citizens today, there was a curious court case in Boston surrounding the legal definition of the sandwich. The story goes that a court in Boston fashioned a legal definition for the food due to a non-compete clause of a shopping center which already contained restaurants serving tacos, burritos, and quesadillas which, some argued, could be construed as a sandwich type food. The court found that these styles of food differed particularly because they do not utilize two slices of bread, but generally one tortilla. More information on the court case can be read here.

For more on sandwiches generally, the above link to the Wikipedia article is informative.

US Multiculturalism

By Maleliberation (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Multiculturalism has been a fundamental aspect of American society nearly since inception, when the colonists first encountered Native American tribes. From this, the United States as an entity has needed to address issues related to a citizenry of widely diverse backgrounds, which stretches all the way from historic times to today, and will continue to be an issue into the future. Two fundamental relationships are key in addressing the debates of modern multiculturalism in America. These relationships are religion and its relationship to the state and population and affirmative action and the government in race relations.

Firstly, one of the biggest issues at the forefront of a multicultural America is the apparent conflict between the “West” with the fundamentalist Muslims, a decidedly “Other” entity, to borrow Edward Said's terminology. With the significant rise of violence attributed to Muslims, people who are Muslim, associated with Muslims, or look like what Muslims are thought to look like are targeted as inherently against America. A style of “guilty until proven innocent.” The fundamental issue here is the reconciliation between national security, a product of US Cold War policy, and preservation of the rights of American citizens as guaranteed by the Bill of Rights and the Constitution this country was founded on. Examples abound of Muslim citizens being targeted for illegal wiretapping, government supervision, and general public mistrust by the fact that they follow a specific religion. Further examples speak of the detainment of citizens without proper charges or due process of law. Though the state has a mandate to protect the integrity of US borders and security, no mandate exists for the State to do so at the cost and erosion of citizens’ rights. A product of this move towards a national security state is also the lack of understanding among the general population, specifically in relation to people who “look Muslim,” but have little to do with the faith, or outwardly oppose the fundamentals of the faith.

An example of this is the news stories of vigilante militants attacking and harassing people of the Sikh religion. They do so because, through ignorance, they see the beard and turban and assume they are fundamentalist Muslims when, in fact, Sikhs particularly practice a faith where some tenets are opposed directly to some tenets of Islam, reflecting a long-standing cultural conflict between the two faiths. Moving forward, then, requires the greatest care to ensure that the state protects certain fundamental rights of the citizenry without taking away the rights afforded by the core principles of the country and that the people work to keep culturally aware and avoid simple “black and white” thinking.

Secondly, we must address the issue of Affirmative Action and related policies in relation to the selection and acceptance of students into university. According to the most modern Executive Order 11246, signed by President Lyndon Johnson, the movement of affirmative action

“prohibits federal contractors and federally assisted construction contractors and subcontractors, who do over $10,000 in Government business in one year from discriminating in employment decisions on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.” It also requires contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, color, religion, sex or national origin."

This has been further required that contractors document their policies for enforcing equal opportunity for review by the Federal government, outlined here:

“..required contractors with 51 or more employees and contracts of $50,000 or more to implement affirmative action plans to increase the participation of minorities and women in the workplace if a workforce analysis demonstrates their under-representation, meaning that there are fewer minorities and women than would be expected given the numbers of minorities and women qualified to hold the positions available. Federal regulations require affirmative action plans to include an equal opportunity policy statement, an analysis of the current work force, identification of under-represented areas, the establishment of reasonable, flexible goals and timetables for increasing employment opportunities, specific action-oriented programs to address problem areas, support for community action programs, and the establishment of an internal audit and reporting system.”

An interesting byproduct of such orders show that businesses and universities have developed, either implicitly or explicitly, policies which favor, or give certain preferential treatment to, underrepresented minorities in relation to acceptance into university. Several states have moved to take this to the ballot, with several also establishing that so called “points systems” favoring certain races over others is unconstitutional. California’s Prop 209 from 1996 describes this response:

“..upon approval in November 1996, [Proposition 209] amended the state constitution to prohibit state government institutions from considering race, sex, or ethnicity, specifically in the areas of public employment, public contracting or public education.”

In a circumstances surrounding the greater Civil Rights Movement, certain institutions exceeded what many felt was the original “flavor” of the order not by eliminating unequal opportunities among various ethnic groups, but giving preferential treatment and establishing unclear “quotas” for students of certain ethnic backgrounds. No longer based strictly on the merits of the applicant, some institutions swung towards selection based on the color of the applicant’s skin.

Few people still maintain the belief that races hold any true biological significance in relation to the greater human race. Few would openly wish to maintain the unequal institutions common before the Civil Rights Movement helped abolish segregation and certain “separate but equal” policies. The end goal, then, must be a level playing field based not on color of the skin, which is in and of itself a form of discrimination against merit-based selection, but one based solely on the abilities and talents of the applicant being reviewed. This balance, however, continues to be an issue as the US continues to become a more diverse landscape of backgrounds.

Recommended Films: Shawshank Redemption, Frank Darabont; Osama, Siddiq Barmak; Pushing Hands, Ang Lee; Dim Sum: A Little Bit of Heart, Wayne Wang; Smoke Signals, Chris Eyre

Progress in Political and Social Equality, 1960-1975

"AfricanAmericans," FEastman. Licensed under Public domain via Wikimedia Commons

The US Postwar period of the 1950s through the 1970s marks a significant paradigm shift towards inclusion, at the cost of continued segregation and exclusion of African Americans and women from social status. The statement “Between 1960 and 1975, there was great progress in the struggle for political and social equality,” is essentially sound, given the circumstances, with the understanding that the path towards human equality remains a constant issue.

A number of incidents and circumstances between the Civil Rights Movement and the continued fight for women’s liberation share common cause towards equality during this period. Influenced by Martin Luther King Jr.’s influence and the aftermath of the Montgomery Bus Boycotts of the later 1950's, issues of human rights and calls for equality took a higher priority among the general social discussion.

The 1950's also saw, on a more international scale, the shift away from traditional patriarchal social norms towards a more inclusive slant, as nations began to rebuild after World War II. Emphasis on public education, and the desire to utilize all able human capital within the nation state, began to address common issues of unequal opportunity in places like Europe, the US, and Japan.

The 1960's, which contains the bulk of what we refer to as the Civil Rights Movement, further pushed the shift away from a “separate but equal” understanding in the South, with parallels to the 1950's “nuclear ideal” of women as domestic homemakers, excluded from opportunity in the larger social context.

The rise of the Vietnam War in the 1970's, coupled with the continued counter-culture movement against established cultural norms, as well as the climax of total desegregation within the Civil Rights Movement’s efforts in 1969, further influenced the liberation and shedding of many social norms aimed at women. Additionally, the US government under Jimmy Carter moved towards emphasizing human rights as a federal policy, thus addressing lingering issues of inequality among women and African Americans.

Honestly, the work is still continuing in the call for honest reevaluation in equality among people. With the United States being such a pluralistic society, with many ethnic identities and cultural interactions, the issue of what is “fair” and “equitable” will likely shift with current circumstances. Issues of unequal pay still plague women in the workplace, while minorities are still largely over-represented among the population in crime statistics and underrepresented among education statistics. Unfair targeting of specific ethnic groups represents the ongoing battle between crime prevention and invasion of fundamental civil rights. Finding concrete answers to these lingering issues will continue to challenge the people as we move into the next generations.

Recommended Films: American History X, Tony Kaye; Malcolm X, Spike Lee;