World War II, Anti-Communism, Women's Liberation Movement

By CIA [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Two prominent circumstances greatly affect the politics of America during the latter half of the 20th Century. Taken together, it can be argued that US Cold War policy, Anti-Communist sentiments in the West, and the movement for women’s liberation resurrecting during World War II had direct influences over modern world circumstances as divergent as modern feminist movements, the presence of the Chinese Communist Party, and the Japanese State as a victim of nuclear weapons.

First we look at the Anti-Communist sentiments arising during the Second World War. Towards the end of the war, the United States and the Soviet Union were both working on, or completing work on, the development of the first nuclear weaponry. The United States, in part as a demonstration of international military might aimed at the Soviet Union, used the nuclear weapons “Fat Man” and “Little Boy” on the two cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima in 1945.

Scholars still debate the military, political, and social implications of the decision to use the bombs, from the argument that they saved both Japanese and Allied lives by avoiding a direct land invasion, while others claim the war would have ended naturally as dissidents within the Japanese leadership were already wavering on the war effort.

In hindsight, however, it is clear that the decision to use the bombs was, in part, influenced by the perception that there would be a continued conflict, whether cold or hot, between the two political systems of Democracy and Communism.

Second, we can also look at the diplomatic efforts of George Marshall to develop a unified government in China after World War II, and avoid a civil war between the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai Shek and the Communist leadership of Mao Zedong. When this mission ultimately failure, and civil war occurred when neither side willingly negotiated a suitable agreement, American politics trended towards a US Cold War policy of containment via international cooperation with Western Europe and East Asian allies. While the United States desired a more Nationalist China, they were aware of the Kuomintang’s shortcomings, and held no negotiating power over the Communists. Additionally, with the US Cold War policy of containment came the rise of the National Security State and Total Mobilization, where drills like “Duck and Cover” were commonly practiced by students and office workers. The development of the National Security State after WWII gave rise to many modern Federal departments we take for granted, namely the Department of Defense, the National Security Agency, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Central Intelligence Agency.

The rise and fall of the Cold War, and Anti-Communist movements spearheaded by the United States, greatly affected the modern makeup of the US Federal Government, the Chinese Communist government, and the status of Japan as a victim of nuclear weapons.

A second movement which greatly affected the politics of America was the continuation of the women's’ liberation movement, with beginnings largely in the 19th century, and arising as a sort of second wave in the 1970s, which still continues today.

During the War, with men being drafted into battle in Western Europe and the Pacific theaters, manufacture of military goods, consumer goods (what little didn’t go to the miltary), and work within factories fell to the large female population left. This gave rise of women as workers, personified in the ideal “Rosie the Riveter” image. The employment women gained during the war largely dissipated after the end of conflict, with returning veterans replacing the working women, and the manufacture of munitions and war-time production greatly reduced. Alongside this small taste of economic ability gained during the war, societal norms had to reconcile the tyranny of Nazism, it’s holistic influence among the population and their lives, and address domestic relations between and among the powers and the women and the segregated ethnic groups kept under their heel. The seeds of change were there, but would largely remain on the back burner until the 1960's and 70's, when the Civil Rights Movement, coupled with the counter-culture movement and a shedding of the 1950s norms of the nuclear family gave rise to a stronger motion for equality.

The circumstances of women as economically independent, or at least less dependent upon a man for sustenance during WW II, and the movement towards equality among the various ethnic groups AND gender groups during the 1960s and 1970s, still have repercussions today, where salary gaps are generally narrowing and sports develop leagues to accommodate women and men. The changing politics, commanding equality of ethnicity and gender in the workplace, can trace their development to the circumstances of women’s liberation.

Anti-Communist movements and the women’s liberation movement greatly affected the shaping of modern American politics in the 20th century. As the United States looks out towards the world, and the conflicts brewing in the Middle East, it will be interesting to see how the American movement towards liberation of gender will affect the development of politics in that region of the world.

Recommended Films: Grave of the Fireflies (UR), Isao Takahata; Breakfast at Tiffany's (NR), Blake Edwards; Barbarella, Roger Vadim (PG)

Hungry History: Sandwiches!!

Honey Whole Wheat Toast with Butter, Sun-dried tomatoes w/ olive oil, pepper jack cheese, salami, sliced turkey breast with balsamic-vinegar tomatoes and spinach

From peanut butter and jelly to turkey-avocado, Reuben sandwiches, and Philly cheese steak, we've all had one or two sandwiches we love. Today we're going to explore a little of the history behind the development of the sandwich.

The namesake is thought to come from John Montagu, the 4th Earl of Sandwich, because of his credited creation of this highly portable food. One story states that the Earl was in a terrible hurry and, as was common at the time, instead of eating the entire meal on a "trencher" or stale piece of bread, the Earl "wrapped" the meat and vegetables in the folded stale bread and ate on the run. Another states that he wished his valets to serve his food in such a manner because he wanted to continue playing cards and other hobbies without greasing his fingers or the playing cards.

Sandwich-type meals have been around for many generations, and are widely consumed in as diverse parts of the world as the Middle East, where Jewish individuals use unleavened bread with meat and various vegetables, to the common use of Naan-style bread in India, eaten most often with curries and other dishes. Also falling under the definition of sandwich are the various sweet versions like chocolate-cream sandwiches and ice cream sandwiches.

The Wall Street journal, going along with the Earl's claim, states that the sandwich was Britain's "biggest contribution to gastronomy."

Though the concept of the sandwich is rather easily understood among most globalized citizens today, there was a curious court case in Boston surrounding the legal definition of the sandwich. The story goes that a court in Boston fashioned a legal definition for the food due to a non-compete clause of a shopping center which already contained restaurants serving tacos, burritos, and quesadillas which, some argued, could be construed as a sandwich type food. The court found that these styles of food differed particularly because they do not utilize two slices of bread, but generally one tortilla. More information on the court case can be read here.

For more on sandwiches generally, the above link to the Wikipedia article is informative.

US Multiculturalism

By Maleliberation (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Multiculturalism has been a fundamental aspect of American society nearly since inception, when the colonists first encountered Native American tribes. From this, the United States as an entity has needed to address issues related to a citizenry of widely diverse backgrounds, which stretches all the way from historic times to today, and will continue to be an issue into the future. Two fundamental relationships are key in addressing the debates of modern multiculturalism in America. These relationships are religion and its relationship to the state and population and affirmative action and the government in race relations.

Firstly, one of the biggest issues at the forefront of a multicultural America is the apparent conflict between the “West” with the fundamentalist Muslims, a decidedly “Other” entity, to borrow Edward Said's terminology. With the significant rise of violence attributed to Muslims, people who are Muslim, associated with Muslims, or look like what Muslims are thought to look like are targeted as inherently against America. A style of “guilty until proven innocent.” The fundamental issue here is the reconciliation between national security, a product of US Cold War policy, and preservation of the rights of American citizens as guaranteed by the Bill of Rights and the Constitution this country was founded on. Examples abound of Muslim citizens being targeted for illegal wiretapping, government supervision, and general public mistrust by the fact that they follow a specific religion. Further examples speak of the detainment of citizens without proper charges or due process of law. Though the state has a mandate to protect the integrity of US borders and security, no mandate exists for the State to do so at the cost and erosion of citizens’ rights. A product of this move towards a national security state is also the lack of understanding among the general population, specifically in relation to people who “look Muslim,” but have little to do with the faith, or outwardly oppose the fundamentals of the faith.

An example of this is the news stories of vigilante militants attacking and harassing people of the Sikh religion. They do so because, through ignorance, they see the beard and turban and assume they are fundamentalist Muslims when, in fact, Sikhs particularly practice a faith where some tenets are opposed directly to some tenets of Islam, reflecting a long-standing cultural conflict between the two faiths. Moving forward, then, requires the greatest care to ensure that the state protects certain fundamental rights of the citizenry without taking away the rights afforded by the core principles of the country and that the people work to keep culturally aware and avoid simple “black and white” thinking.

Secondly, we must address the issue of Affirmative Action and related policies in relation to the selection and acceptance of students into university. According to the most modern Executive Order 11246, signed by President Lyndon Johnson, the movement of affirmative action

“prohibits federal contractors and federally assisted construction contractors and subcontractors, who do over $10,000 in Government business in one year from discriminating in employment decisions on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.” It also requires contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, color, religion, sex or national origin."

This has been further required that contractors document their policies for enforcing equal opportunity for review by the Federal government, outlined here:

“..required contractors with 51 or more employees and contracts of $50,000 or more to implement affirmative action plans to increase the participation of minorities and women in the workplace if a workforce analysis demonstrates their under-representation, meaning that there are fewer minorities and women than would be expected given the numbers of minorities and women qualified to hold the positions available. Federal regulations require affirmative action plans to include an equal opportunity policy statement, an analysis of the current work force, identification of under-represented areas, the establishment of reasonable, flexible goals and timetables for increasing employment opportunities, specific action-oriented programs to address problem areas, support for community action programs, and the establishment of an internal audit and reporting system.”

An interesting byproduct of such orders show that businesses and universities have developed, either implicitly or explicitly, policies which favor, or give certain preferential treatment to, underrepresented minorities in relation to acceptance into university. Several states have moved to take this to the ballot, with several also establishing that so called “points systems” favoring certain races over others is unconstitutional. California’s Prop 209 from 1996 describes this response:

“..upon approval in November 1996, [Proposition 209] amended the state constitution to prohibit state government institutions from considering race, sex, or ethnicity, specifically in the areas of public employment, public contracting or public education.”

In a circumstances surrounding the greater Civil Rights Movement, certain institutions exceeded what many felt was the original “flavor” of the order not by eliminating unequal opportunities among various ethnic groups, but giving preferential treatment and establishing unclear “quotas” for students of certain ethnic backgrounds. No longer based strictly on the merits of the applicant, some institutions swung towards selection based on the color of the applicant’s skin.

Few people still maintain the belief that races hold any true biological significance in relation to the greater human race. Few would openly wish to maintain the unequal institutions common before the Civil Rights Movement helped abolish segregation and certain “separate but equal” policies. The end goal, then, must be a level playing field based not on color of the skin, which is in and of itself a form of discrimination against merit-based selection, but one based solely on the abilities and talents of the applicant being reviewed. This balance, however, continues to be an issue as the US continues to become a more diverse landscape of backgrounds.

Recommended Films: Shawshank Redemption, Frank Darabont; Osama, Siddiq Barmak; Pushing Hands, Ang Lee; Dim Sum: A Little Bit of Heart, Wayne Wang; Smoke Signals, Chris Eyre

Progress in Political and Social Equality, 1960-1975

"AfricanAmericans," FEastman. Licensed under Public domain via Wikimedia Commons

The US Postwar period of the 1950s through the 1970s marks a significant paradigm shift towards inclusion, at the cost of continued segregation and exclusion of African Americans and women from social status. The statement “Between 1960 and 1975, there was great progress in the struggle for political and social equality,” is essentially sound, given the circumstances, with the understanding that the path towards human equality remains a constant issue.

A number of incidents and circumstances between the Civil Rights Movement and the continued fight for women’s liberation share common cause towards equality during this period. Influenced by Martin Luther King Jr.’s influence and the aftermath of the Montgomery Bus Boycotts of the later 1950's, issues of human rights and calls for equality took a higher priority among the general social discussion.

The 1950's also saw, on a more international scale, the shift away from traditional patriarchal social norms towards a more inclusive slant, as nations began to rebuild after World War II. Emphasis on public education, and the desire to utilize all able human capital within the nation state, began to address common issues of unequal opportunity in places like Europe, the US, and Japan.

The 1960's, which contains the bulk of what we refer to as the Civil Rights Movement, further pushed the shift away from a “separate but equal” understanding in the South, with parallels to the 1950's “nuclear ideal” of women as domestic homemakers, excluded from opportunity in the larger social context.

The rise of the Vietnam War in the 1970's, coupled with the continued counter-culture movement against established cultural norms, as well as the climax of total desegregation within the Civil Rights Movement’s efforts in 1969, further influenced the liberation and shedding of many social norms aimed at women. Additionally, the US government under Jimmy Carter moved towards emphasizing human rights as a federal policy, thus addressing lingering issues of inequality among women and African Americans.

Honestly, the work is still continuing in the call for honest reevaluation in equality among people. With the United States being such a pluralistic society, with many ethnic identities and cultural interactions, the issue of what is “fair” and “equitable” will likely shift with current circumstances. Issues of unequal pay still plague women in the workplace, while minorities are still largely over-represented among the population in crime statistics and underrepresented among education statistics. Unfair targeting of specific ethnic groups represents the ongoing battle between crime prevention and invasion of fundamental civil rights. Finding concrete answers to these lingering issues will continue to challenge the people as we move into the next generations.

Recommended Films: American History X, Tony Kaye; Malcolm X, Spike Lee;

Hungry History: Convenience Food in the US

Cans, TV dinners, jarred preserves, box meals. All are examples of convenience food we often associate with today's grocery stores.

These types of meals have origins, partly, in most worldwide agricultural settlements where preservation and portability were required. One example, the Aztecs, shows that warriors and scouts often carried meals that required only the addition of water for easy transport and storage.

The 19th Century in the US brought innovations in packaging, particularly the viability of canning. Although canning had been around as early as the 1850's, the ability to make cans on a larger scale came about when machines allowed low-skilled operators to replace specialized tin workers in the manufacture of large-scale product quickly.

The ability to freeze food, particularly the innovation of refrigeration and refrigerated trucks, brought frozen meals and frozen veggies from across the world to the grocery cart of populations throughout the country.

A particularly important vehicle for the development of convenience foods was the experience of US military personnel in World War II. Required to survive, and fight, in often harsh, remote conditions, these soldiers required not only hearty meals, but shelf-safe packaging with easy preparation, often with just water. As the soldiers returned, the technology they utilized became adopted in the market. Private firm factories once dedicated to the manufacture of packaged goods for military use transferred their machinery, and advertising budgets, to marketing these same goods to the general public. The legacy of these convenience foods in the 1950's and beyond survives in our grocery stores as divergent products and crackers, cookies, snack bars, instant noodles, processed pasta and rice dishes, cereals, and a wide variety of other goods.

This meal pictured here showcases a prepackaged microwavable rice dish, including dehydrated peas and carrots with a powdered flavoring, frozen cut corn, and packaged smoked sausages browned on the stovetop and served on top. Alongside the food is a packaged lemonade flavored drink.

By 221.20 (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

A personal favorite convenience food comes from Japan, their innovative packaging for onigiri (rice balls) ensures the nori (seaweed) stays crisp while the sushi rice and filling remains moist and delicious!

Book Review: Still Missing: Amelia Earhart and the Search for Modern Feminism, Susan Ware.

[Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons via http://e-archives.lib.purdue.edu/

Book Review: Susan Ware. Still Missing: Amelia Earhart and the Search for Modern Feminism. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 1993. $19.13.

Susan Ware’s book Still Missing: Amelia Earhart and the Search for Modern Feminism argues that Earhart, while most certainly an exceptional example of young womanhood during the 1920's, was definitely a product of time and place. Earhart reflected the rising understanding of liberal feminism, specifically that by showcasing the talents and abilities of the exceptional individual, the entire gender would adjust minds by “proving” the category “woman” held no inherent handicap in achievement.

Ware’s strength is in her choice of chronological structuring of her text. Earhart’s philosophies seem to develop organically, particularly between the period of 1928-1937, although not limited to this range. By taking a chronological approach, Ware is able to build the drama of the tale, though we all know what the outcome will be. Nevertheless, Ware’s narrative is not about the end result, but the significance of the journey and the substance of Earhart’s life. Chronology also allows Ware to showcase, in her chapter “Popular Heroines/ Popular Culture” other women who occupy the same exceptional, liberal feminist pantheon of legends, particularly Katherine Hepburn, Dorothy Thompson, and Eleanor Roosevelt, to name a few. These case studies further emphasis on individuals as exceptional examples of possibility for women.

Ware structures her argument organically. This emphasizes clarity in understanding in a linear fashion. One strength here is this very clarity and understanding, as we understand time moving in a linear way. A weakness may be the temptation of thinking the events of Earhart’s life and philosophy were inevitable, or though the author goes to lengths emphasizing at different levels when things may have taken a turn (such as Earhart’s choice to marry G.P. Putnam, or her decision not to have children, or her choice of doing a world-wide flight in 1936-7).

Ware successfully utilizes primary source documents, particularly the words of Earhart herself, to emphasize her brand of liberal feminism and how her words and deeds sparked the imagination of possibility among vast numbers of young women. Ware’s argument suggesting how Earhart’s words and actions supported her aims of expanding women’s access is further supported through her use of unpublished primary source documents like private correspondence, that further emphasizes not only Earhart’s steadfast support of liberal feminist philosophies (avoiding sex-based laws of help or hindrance) remain behind the cameras as much as before them. Even given the limited availability of other primary sources, due to fire at Earhart’s home, Ware does successfully utilize the sources available and seems to mine them very well to emphasize her arguments.

This book encourages the reader to not think of Earhart as a legend, though she certainly was an exceptional individual and a fantastic self-promoter (also thanks to G.P. Putnam. Ware wants us to consider her as a product of 1920's liberal feminism, and as a larger-than-life hero to so many young ladies who see the possibilities within the context of this specific society. Earhart represents these possibilities, and showcases, as the main thrust of this book emphasizes time and again, that women of the 1920's wanted an exceptional example of what women could do, and women like Earhart, Roosevelt, and Hepburn reflected this want. It also emphasizes that liberal feminism was the vogue way of looking at  women’s roles within society and the workplace (among white, middle-class women and their fans). It wasn't sex that one should focus on, but the individual ability and talents, regardless of sex. Nevertheless, the book does not gloss over Earhart’s limitations, nor the limits of liberal feminism. Both Earhart and liberal feminists were largely white, middle-class or upper-middle class, individuals with exceptional talent and exceptional opportunity. The plight of minority women, particularly African-American women and economically disadvantaged women, whose options to excel seemed particularly limited.

In conclusion, Ware’s book expands upon the understanding of Earhart as feminist, and avoids further expansion on Earhart the legend. Ware succeeds at contextualizing Earhart, which is the main emphasis of her text. Earhart was reflective of liberal feminist thought, her contributions unfortunately overshadowed by her unsolved disappearance. Ware ends with a treatment of why Earhart might have taken that last flight, as a publicity stunt for a slumping career or as an answer to the social shift away from 1920's feminine heroes towards 1940's suppression of mass feminist movements. Earhart’s potentialities were not diminished had she successfully returned from her flight, and Ware wonders whether she would have taken a post at Purdue as a researcher or counselor, or taken another aviation-oriented “second career.” One wonders whether or not we would even be studying her had she not disappeared!

Ware’s case studies of other women further places Earhart within a context, although does not bog the reader down in details unnecessary for her main purpose, which is greatly appreciated. It is a fine example of blending narrative and scholarship to produce a product that will appeal to academic and layman historian, although academic historians will likely find particular points of critique, as with any text.

Hungry History: The Non-definitive Chicken Adobo

Chicken Adobo. This is a staple Filipino dish that, like many staple dishes, has about as many variations as there are islands in the Philippines. Is there sugar in the recipe? Ridiculous! Maybe ginger? How about soy sauce, Chinese or otherwise? Onions? Garlic? You get the idea.

While there will undoubtedly be unending debates over what recipe(s) truly represent "authentic" or "real" adobo, I'll be content to try different ones and continue making the ones I enjoy eating. To each there own.

Adobo, at its core, is a protein (often pork or chicken) that is braised in a vinegary sauce, sometimes including sabaw (soup), but sometimes cooked until the sauce boils off and the meat sears in the pan. 

Families with Chinese ancestry, cultural influence, or just food preference will often add Filipino soy sauce and vinegar. I use Datu Puti brand soy because that is what is available locally, but even low-sodium Kikkoman will have success, though a different flavor profile. The amount of garlic and ginger will vary with personal preference (I always had a healthy amount of garlic, keeps bad things away!)

My family is from Ilocos Norte, although whether the way my grandmother made it was regional or Filipino-American influenced, I'm not certain. She seemed quite influenced by Chinese-style cooking (her lumpia was almost always Chinese-style).

Like many aspects of Filipino culture, the name adobo derives from the Spanish word for marinade or sauce adobo/adobar, although the method is Filipino. In part because it preserves well, the cooking method for making adobo is thought to have been used since the Classical Period, although Chinese cultural influence replaced the traditional salt with soy in many recipes.

The beauty of this dish is that you can prepare it to your family's preferences, with adjustments to salt, soy, ginger, garlic, vinegar, and protein used. Don't let purists say your way isn't traditional or authentic. Adobo's beauty is its versatility. Use it, experiment, and find your own favorite flavors of the Philippines! Here's one recipe for chicken adobo I enjoy to get started, and it uses a slow cooker, so it is super easy to prepare!

Work for Free, and Reap the Rewards

Liberal arts degrees, or at least liberal arts as a minor, are not completely worthless in the marketplace.

One of the best skills people who study a liberal art, specifically English, Philosophy, or History, among others, is the ability to research and write clearly, for a specific audience, supported by concrete details and evidence. These also help contribute to critical thinking and analysis skills that are required in fields as divergent as science, business, and law.

While the job market is indeed more challenging, or less linear, among certain liberal art fields than it may be in, say, accounting, or computer science, it is no less viable than any other field. The truth is there is work out there for anyone who is seeking employment.

What is necessary for these specialists, however, is creativity in the search. It isn't enough to follow and believe that a seamless transition from education to corporate employee is immediate, or easily obtained. For the liberal artists, and to a lesser degree any field where a leg up on the competition is wanted, it is necessary to utilize multiple approaches to doing the key point of any job application: real world experience.

Most job postings want the "ideal candidate" to have 3-5 years of experience in the field of work, and a laundry list of skills and abilities. How recent graduates can acquire 3-5 years of experience, specifically if they didn't have the foresight to do so while in school, is on the surface unappealing. This task is the "work for free" mentality.

Internships, volunteer work, underpay, or otherwise minimal compensation for work within your specialization is what is necessary to achieve success when starting out. Whether it is writing articles for a few dollars, or processing artifacts within a non-profit museum, or volunteering time at a local shelter or office, these experiences show future employers that you are serious about your work, and are not merely doing it for monetary gain (although it may be a future goal).

It places you within a proper mindset to build a more solid appreciation for the work. When a person is working for low or no pay, they are able to gauge how important the work itself, the field, or the topics are to the individual based on intrinsic merits, and not extrinsic rewards like money or status. It makes sense that finding internal rewards first may make the employee more productive and thus will contribute to increased pay.

Do the work for free, or low pay, to begin with, and reap the rewards of a better, more suitable career in your chosen field.